This variable indicated whether a subject met daily guidelines for daily aerobic exercise Other covariates included body mass index BMI , self-perception of general health, age, sex, education level, and annual household income. The data were analyzed using SAS 9. Multivariable logistic regression was used to control for any potential confounders. Similar distribution of BMI categories were found for both users and nonusers.
People were more likely to use menu labeling, on average, if they consumed more fruits OR, 1. Multivariable logistic regression was used to further examine the association between menu-labeling usage and the adjusted effects of diet and exercise while controlling for potential confounders Table 2. The results were mostly consistent with the univariate analyses, which showed that people were more likely to use menu labeling if they met aerobic exercise guidelines OR, 1.
The consumption of sweetened fruit beverages was not significant in the multivariable analysis. The initial multivariable analysis also indicated that, compared with those who are in the underweight or normal weight BMI categories, those who are overweight OR, 1. Stratified analyses were conducted for each BMI category to determine why menu-labeling users tend to have healthier dietary and exercise habits than do nonusers of menu labeling yet at the same time tend to be overweight or obese Table 2.
People in the obese category were more likely to use menu labeling if they met aerobic exercise guidelines OR, 1. Vegetable consumption was marginally significant OR, 1. Similarly, within the overweight category, those who consumed less soda OR, 0. Meeting aerobic exercise guidelines was marginally significant OR, 1. Our finding may be because these previous studies used a small sample size or a sample restricted to a single city.
Although our study includes only 3 states, the sample size is much larger and the sample is representative of the entire state Our results indicated that people were more likely to use menu labeling if they were adequately exercising, eating more fruits and vegetables, and drinking less soda. Past studies demonstrated that menu labeling may contribute to a decrease in calories consumed 8, Because we have no measures of actual calorie consumption, we cannot conclude whether menu-labeling usage is the major determinant in decreasing calorie intake or whether people using menu labeling are already participating in healthy behaviors, and hence would naturally consume fewer calories regardless of menu-labeling usage.
More research on this matter is needed, because if the former is true, simply increasing menu-labeling usage among the public would lead to intake of fewer calories overall, whereas if the latter is true, then further efforts to increase menu-labeling usage among people who are not participating in such healthy behaviors would be needed. Harnack and colleagues 28 reported no significant differences with respect to BMI and menu-labeling usage.
Although the unadjusted univariate results from our study showed similar findings, the results of the adjusted analysis showed that those who are overweight and obese were more likely to use menu labeling than those who were underweight or normal weight. Hence, at first glance it may seem that menu labeling is being used by the groups most at risk. However, these results are somewhat misleading. Stratified analyses of the data indicate that even among those who are overweight and obese, the people who are using menu-labeling are those participating in healthy behaviors.
These people tended to meet aerobic exercise guidelines, consumed more fruits, and consumed less soda than those who did not use menu labeling, suggesting that menu labeling may not be benefiting those who do not partake in such behaviors. Among the other covariates, menu labeling was more than twice as likely to be used if a person was female. This finding is probably because women are more likely than men to engage in nutrition and exercise activities Women are more likely than men to read the nutrition labels on food items, and when a woman reads nutritional labels, she is more likely to focus on the total amount of calories 30, Efforts may be warranted to increase the usage of menu labeling among men.
To our knowledge, this is the first large study on menu labeling; however, several limitations are noted. Second, although the BRFSS is structured to provide nationally representative estimates, Module 4 that pertains to menu-labeling usage was administered in only 3 states Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Hawaii. The Authors declare that there are no competing interests associated with the manuscript.
National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Biochemical Journal. Biochem J. Published online May Elizabeth Thursby and Nathalie Juge. Find articles by Elizabeth Thursby. Find articles by Nathalie Juge. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Corresponding author. Correspondence: Nathalie Juge ku. This is an open access article published by Portland Press Limited on behalf of the Biochemical Society and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract The human gastrointestinal GI tract harbours a complex and dynamic population of microorganisms, the gut microbiota, which exert a marked influence on the host during homeostasis and disease.
Keywords: gastrointestinal tract, gut microbiota, symbiosis. Composition and structure of the human GI microbiota Around a decade ago, most knowledge about the adult human gut microbiota stemmed from labour-intensive culture-based methods [ 13 ].
Development of the human GI microbiota The development of the microbiota is generally believed to begin from birth, although this dogma is challenged by a limited number of studies in which microbes were detected in womb tissues, such as the placenta [ 23 , 24 ]. Biogeography of the human microbiota in the GI tract Microbiota composition in the GI tract is reflective of the physiological properties in a given region and is stratified on both a transverse and longitudinal axis [ 39 ].
Factors shaping the GI microbiota The microbiota composition is subject to shaping by host and environmental selective pressures. Role of the GI microbiota in health Owing to its large genomic content and metabolic complement, the gut microbiota provides a range of beneficial properties to the host.
Conclusion Given the close symbiotic relationship existing between the gut microbiota and the host, it is not surprising to observe a divergence from the normal microbiota composition generally referred to as dysbiosis in a plethora of disease states ranging from chronic GI diseases to neurodevelopmental disorders [ 12 , ]. Competing Interests The Authors declare that there are no competing interests associated with the manuscript.
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Additionally, screening of pig and human serum samples found that 9. The observed difference in cellular tropism was further supported by structural analysis showing that hemagglutinin esterase HE proteins between two viruses have conserved enzymatic but divergent receptor-binding sites. The presence of multiple subtypes of co-circulating influenza C viruses raises the possibility of reassortment and antigenic shift as mechanisms of influenza C virus evolution.
Influenza C viruses infect most humans during childhood. Unlike influenza A viruses, influenza C viruses exhibit little genetic variability and evolve at a comparably slower rate. Influenza A viruses exist as multiple subtypes and cause disease in numerous mammals.
In contrast, influenza C viruses are comprised of a single subtype in its primary human host. This is significant, as co-circulation of multiple subtypes of influenza allows for rapid viral evolution through antigenic shift, a property previously only shown for influenza A viruses. PLoS Pathog 9 2 : e This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. This does not alter the authors' adherence to all the PLoS Journal policies on sharing data and materials. Influenza A, B and C viruses are members of the Orthomyxoviridae family that can cause influenza in humans [1]. Influenza A viruses exist in humans, various other mammal species, and birds; migratory or domestic waterfowl are their largest reservoir.
Humans are thought to be the primary hosts and reservoir of influenza B and C viruses, although both have been identified in other hosts after reverse zoonotic transmission from humans. While influenza B virus is a common seasonal human pathogen similar to influenza A virus in its clinical presentation, influenza C virus causes primarily upper respiratory tract infections in children [2]. Clinical manifestations cough, fever, and malaise are typically mild, but infants are susceptible to serious lower respiratory tract infections [3].
Influenza C viruses co-circulate with influenza A and B viruses and causes local epidemics [4] , [5]. Six genetic and antigenic lineages of influenza C viruses have been described, and as in influenza B viruses, are considered monsubtypic [6] , [7].
Co-circulation of multiple subtypes of influenza allows for rapid viral evolution through the process of antigenic shift, a property previously only shown for influenza A viruses.
Thus, both influenza B and C viruses do not have pandemic potential. It is the animal reservoirs of diverse influenza A viruses that give them the unique property within orthomyxoviruses of causing human pandemics. Aside from humans, influenza C virus has been isolated only from swine in China in [11]. Genetic analysis showed a close relation between Japanese human and Chinese swine influenza C isolates [12] , [13]. Serological surveys in Japan and the United Kingdom found 9.
Swine inoculated with influenza C virus had mild respiratory disease and transmitted the virus to naive swine by direct contact [11]. Here we characterize an orthomyxovirus isolated from a clinically ill pig and show that the virus is distantly related to human influenza C virus and readily infects and is transmissible in both ferrets and pigs.
Genetic and antigenic analysis suggest that this virus represents a new subtype of influenza C virus, raising the possibility of reassortment and antigenic shift as mechanisms for influenza C virus evolution which could pose a potential threat to human health. In April , nasal swabs from week old swine exhibiting influenza-like illness were submitted to Newport Laboratories, Worthington, Minnesota, for virus isolation.
Electron microscopic EM studies of the cell cultures demonstrated features characteristic of an Orthomyxovirus Fig. Negative-staining EM showed enveloped spherical to pleomorphic viral particles approximately — nm in diameter Fig. The virion surface contained dense projections 10—13 nm in length and 4—6 nm in diameter. Thin-section EM studies of infected cells revealed filamentous budding of virions from the plasma membrane Fig.
These data strongly suggested the virus to be a member of the family Orthomyxoviridae. Enzymatic assays revealed that the virus had negligible neuraminidase but detectable O-acetylesterase activity using 4-nitrophenyl acetate, suggesting it to be a member of the influenza C genus.
RT-PCR or PCR assays to detect porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus, porcine coronavirus, and porcine circovirus were also negative data not shown. Note assembly and budding of virions at the apical pole.
Free spherical virions 70—90 nm in diameter present surface spikes and internal electron-dense dots. The virus was purified by ultracentrifugation and sequenced on an Ion Torrent Personal Genome Machine. De novo g enome assembly found that most of the sequence reads mapped to seven contigs of approximately — bp. BlastP searches of the putative proteins identified modest homology to human influenza C virus, suggesting that this virus was distantly related to human influenza C virus Table 1.
The genomic coding sequences of all segments were determined and used for subsequent genetic and phylogenetic analyses. Because PB1 is reported to be the most conserved influenza virus protein, it is frequently used to evaluate the evolutionary relationship among influenza viruses [18].
In influenza A and B viruses segment 3 is referred to as polymerase acidic PA protein because of its pKa of approximately 5. In influenza C virus, a hemagglutinin esterase HE protein is responsible for receptor binding, receptor destroying acetylesterase , and membrane fusion activities, whereas in influenza A and B viruses, separate hemagglutinin HA and neuraminidase NA proteins perform these functions in a cooperative fashion. Like PB1, the nucleoprotein NP and matrix M proteins are highly conserved among members of each genus of influenza viruses.
These NC regions are highly conserved, particularly those at the terminal ends, among the genome segments of each species. Incompatibility between homologous segment packaging sequences has been shown to prevent segment reassortment [26]. Our phylogenetic analysis used representative influenza A, B, and C viruses Fig. As HE does not occur in influenza A and B viruses, only influenza C viruses were included in that analysis.
Previous studies have found that multiple genetically and antigenically distinct but related lineages of influenza C virus co-circulate and frequently reassort [6] , [28] — [30]. Maximum-likelihood analysis in combination with bootstrap replicates was used to derive trees based on the nucleotide sequences encoding respective proteins.
A scale representing the number of nucleotide changes is shown in each panel. Bootstrap values are shown above branches to the left of major nodes. The assay included reference strains of influenza A, B, and C genera and their matched antisera Table S2. For the human cohort, we used a set of serum samples. These sera originated from patients recruited in the Greater Vancouver area of British Columbia, Canada, or in the vicinity of the Greater Hartford area of Connecticut during the — and — influenza seasons as described in Marcelin et al.
The low titers and number of positive samples 1. Sera were collected from pigs aged 3—20 weeks from March through September HI titers range, 10—80 were detected in 9. Only 2. Further serologic studies focusing on individuals occupationally exposed to swine are required. Virus was not detected in ferrets exposed to respiratory droplets. No clinical signs of disease were observed. In the tissues of ferrets on day 5 post-inoculation p. Histopathological examination of lung tissues showed no typical influenza lesions.
Virus was first detected in nasal swabs on day 3 p. Virus shedding peaked at day 8 p. Virus was detected in swine exposed by direct contact on days 7 and 9 after exposure. No clinical signs of illness were observed. Lung samples collected from inoculated swine on day 7 p. Sera collected on day 14 p. Additionally, 2 of the 5 direct contact pigs seroconverted by day 13 post exposure. Two inoculated ferrets were also housed separately for virus titration and histopathology in organs.
To monitor virus shedding, nasal washes were collected from ferrets 3, 5, 7, and 10 days p.
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